INTRODUCTION

1.1. General:

Alternative concepts, presented in this book, follow the approach of classical physics. It primarily gives conceptual explanations of physical phenomena related to matter. A physical law should be based on a concept that is simple enough to be conveyed in plain language. For this reason, the aim of the present book is to convey an alternative concept in simple language without the use of complicated mathematics. All explanations in this text are with respect to a steady (absolute) external reference frame. All explanations strictly adhere to the 'cause and effect relationship'.

Contemporary science explains most physical phenomena observed in the universe. A few explanations vary in different contexts. There are some other phenomena that do not have satisfactory explanations. E.g., nature of matter and energy, development and reversion of three-dimensional matter, nature of gravitation and other ‘natural forces', binding of nucleons in an atom, collapse of macrobodies, nature of radiation, nature of electric charge, etc., to name a few. Many observed phenomena are explained on the basis of assumed fundamentals, and basic reasons are not made clear. E.g., the structure of radiating particles, the structure and creation of subatomic particles, the conception and production of electric charge, the cause of inertia and momentum, the application of ‘force’ and many more.

This concept attempts to explain ‘matter' in all its forms, including its very basic nature. Matter and all its apparent interactions, starting from the minutest particle to the largest systems of matter (limited only by the scope of the book), are included in this text. When accepted and elaborated upon, this concept may give simple and satisfactory explanations for every physical phenomenon (related to matter) observed in nature.

1.2. Aim of this book:

By having a single foundational assumption and deriving a singular type of matter particle from the foundational assumption, it is possible to develop a concept to explain all physical phenomena related to matter. If this concept (built upon ideal postulated matter particles) can provide reasonable and logical explanations, it should be given a chance to develop into a full-fledged theory.

This alternative concept on the nature and development of three-dimensional matter is proposed from the postulated foundational matter particles and on their interactions in

space through direct contact. All the characteristic properties of unstructured matter particles, derived from the fundamental physical nature of unstructured matter, are so chosen that they are able to account for all physical properties of 3D matter, the observable universe, and all apparent interactions in nature. When developed fully, this concept can lead towards a unified theory of matter and its interactions.

This concept does not aim to oppose any of the contemporary theories. Its aim is to present an alternative model that provides simple and logical explanations for all physical phenomena, including those that do not currently have rational explanations, and to provide lucid explanations for those that do not have clear and logical explanations, without using multitudes of assumptions. At present, there are many theories in physics that, when taken together, contradict themselves, but each one is good enough to explain a particular phenomenon. Attempts to explain contradictions become illogical and, on many occasions, introduce virtual objects and unnecessary assumptions. An alternative concept, presented in this book, encompasses all apparent interactions of 3D matter under all conditions.

Matter, as we know it today, is a fact of our observation. It is the real substance that we actually come across in day-to-day life. There is nothing virtual or imaginary about matter. It cannot exhibit different fundamental properties under different conditions. Fundamental properties of structured matter (3D material bodies) should be logically deduced from unstructured matter properties. Fundamental physical laws should hold true under all circumstances. Most contemporary physical theories are developed from observations of 3D material bodies and their apparent interactions. These theories seek to interpret and explain observed phenomena. Nevertheless, in this book, matter is inferred, and its nature is derived purely on a theoretical basis from a basic assumption about the existence of matter. It is then compared to empirical data to demonstrate that real 3D material bodies are not the source of everything observed.

Other than the ‘unstructured matter particles', no other entities (virtual or otherwise) are assumed or taken for granted in this concept. All unstructured matter particles have a definite form and properties to develop into all types of superior 3D material bodies. 3D material bodies, which we come across in nature, are developed through various steps of conversion of 'unstructured matter particles' (without changing their fundamental nature) into more and more complicated and self-sustaining objects to form different types of fundamental particles and macro-bodies. These self-sustaining objects (despite the fact that they are made from similar unstructured matter particles and in a similar manner), depending on their structure, exhibit diverse properties and (apparently) interact with each other in different ways.

The aim of this book is to propose logical and comprehensive explanations for all the different behaviours and properties of 3D material bodies, suitable for all occasions. This

aim is achieved by keeping aside all present-day assumptions and developing this concept from the basic assumption of an ‘unstructured matter particle' and its nature. No abstract logical system can work on many basic assumptions. If a system of reasoning has more than a few basic assumptions, its chain of reasoning will no longer be logical. The fewer the basic assumptions, the more logical a system of reasoning will be. For this reason, only one type of matter particle (derived from the basic assumption) with definite properties is postulated. This one type of foundational matter particle (called the ‘quanta of matter'), on which this concept is based, is sufficient to account for all the diverse phenomena observed in nature. Having a single type of foundational matter particle can avoid the possibility of 'falsification' of this concept.

The author's meagre resources limit this study. At this stage, not all the conclusions in this text are claimed to be true. It is up to the learnt physicists to determine the validity of these conclusions after studying both the chain of reasoning and the conclusions. The only claim made at present is that the conclusions are logical consequences of only one basic assumption made at the beginning of the book, and it is better suited to (logically) explain all phenomena related to matter. All assumptions of present-day science are refuted, and all actions are shown as the results of preceding causes.

Many ideas and most of the conclusions arrived at in this process are contradictory to contemporary thinking and beliefs. This alone should not be considered a disqualification. The reader is requested to give a verdict only after reading through the full text at least once (in sequential order). All conclusions in this book are the results of independent reasoning, starting from the basic assumption and the postulated foundational matter particles. They are not based on or linked to any of the existing theories other than the basic physical laws. Even so, these laws are used only so much as necessary to provide explanations for the points presented.

Kindly pursue this text with an open mind and patience. In order to understand the chain of reasoning followed in this book, it is necessary to follow the text in a sequential order, starting from chapter 2 until the last chapter. As the text progresses, the ideas expressed in it will become clear, logical, and compatible with present-day observations. The simplicity of this concept is not in its basic development, but once the basics of the concept and the chain of its reasoning are understood, explanations for all physical phenomena become very simple and logical.

1.3. Scope of this book:

The concept proposed in this book is about 'matter' in its fundamental form, and hence, it is bound to encompass most branches of science. Touching upon all the physical phenomena of matter is beyond the scope of this book. This book plans to explain only the basic principles of a concept (briefly) to provide an alternative, more logical, and simpler

explanation for some of the common phenomena of matter. Advanced studies on specific phenomena can be done at a later stage. Additional explanations, acquired as a result of further studies or in the answers to important queries from readers, will be added to future editions. In the meantime, any such explanations and findings will be available for reference at the author's website: presently, http://www.matterdoc.in

In formal or abstract logic that is used in mathematics, we have the advantage of being able to decide whether a reason is valid without being psychologically influenced by statements. Notations given in mathematics have no specific meanings. They may be given many different meanings. Thus, it becomes much easier to tell a good reason from a bad one when arguments are exhibited in their skeleton form in notations. In this form, they are simply 'propositional functions'. However, conclusions reached in mathematical treatments cannot be considered as assertions until meanings are assigned to the notations used. Only then do they become proper ‘propositions'. The resultant statements may be true, false, or nonsense. Consequently, similar conclusions reached mathematically (using propositional functions) in two sets of arguments do not guarantee similar conclusions when propositions are used. This fact is often overlooked by those who insist on mathematical treatments as the sole criteria for a good theory. Every concept in this book is based on deductive logic rather than on mathematical derivations.

Only real material bodies can have (inertial) motion in space, and currently we accept 3D material bodies as the only real material bodies. Hence, ‘field forces' or (inertial) actions can exist only in relation to the 3D material bodies. Although the universal medium and the quanta of matter (considered in this book) are real material bodies, being not in 3D spatial status, they are not accepted as such. For the present, they may be considered functional entities. To consider (inertial) actions on the quanta of matter and the generation of actions in a universal medium, a new system has to be evolved on the basis of which takes quanta of matter as real material bodies. Functional terms, like spatial plane, have to be defined in terms of their real thickness, etc. Only then can accurate mathematical evaluations of actions in the universal medium be possible.

Any good concept should be explainable in plain and simple language. Therefore, as far as possible, the explanations in this book avoid the use of mathematics and attempt to develop a chain of reasoning in simple everyday language. In most cases, the mathematical analyses and calculations required are repetitions of those currently in practice. Most units of the measurements, constants of proportion, and calculations used at present are based on the 'Sl unit' of 'mass'. Units and measurements of 'mass' are defined in relation to Avogadro's number, which this concept does not consider correct.

In addition, currently, the ‘mass' of a material body (representing its 3D matter-content) is dependent not only on its 3D matter-content but also on its velocity. Without an absolute reference, the real velocity of a 3D material body in space cannot be

determined. This view is also slightly modified in this concept. Another hindrance to the presentation of calculations is accepting the prominence of the 'work' as a real entity to replace the contemporary undefined functional entity of ‘energy'. Even those simple calculations, as presented here, are rough, and their results are only approximate. Calculations presented in this text are in relation to the present units and formulas. Often, unit measurements are not used, and instead calculations are presented in abstract form. They are to be viewed by keeping these restrictions in mind.

A 3D matter particle or a composite macrobody, which is independent of all external influences (other than gravitational effects) and that can respond independently to external stimulations, is referred to in this book as a free body. Free space is a region of space that is devoid of all 3D matter particles or macrobodies except the 3D matter particle or the macrobody under consideration, if any. Each spectator observes a 3D material body relative to himself or in relation to another reference. Hence, the parameters of a 3D material body, estimated by the use of relative parameters observed by an observer, are not scientifically correct. Some of the current fundamental theories are based on relative or apparent parameters rather than on absolute parameters of a 3D material body. The correct parameters of a 3D material body are relative to an absolute reference. The 'universal medium', described in this book, provides a reference closest to an absolute reference.

In this concept, the term ‘force' is substituted by the term ‘effort' to mean the cause of an action. There is no notion of ‘pull' efforts (forces). All efforts and their resultants are of a 'push' nature only. However, in order to make some explanations clearer, the present convention of efforts being of a 'pull' nature is also used. The difference is that the 'pull' efforts are represented by arrows away from the point of application, and the 3D material body is presumed to follow the point of application of the effort in its inertial motion. In the case of a 'push' effort, arrows representing the efforts are directed towards the point of application, and a 3D material body in its motion precedes the point of application of the effort in its inertial motion.

As far as possible, conventional names for particles and effects are used (though sometimes they do not mean exactly the same) in this text. All such names are to be understood only in the context of this book and as given in the ‘Glossary'. The explanations given in this book are brief and limited to points, just enough to give parallel but more logical interpretations of various phenomena based on the initial assumption and the postulated matter particle. Very few notes or references on contemporary theories are included in this book. They are mentioned only to emphasise the differences and deviations of this concept from the existing theories, rather than as a criticism of any sort. Readers may draw up a full comparison with contemporary theories on their own. Figures in this

text are not drawn to scale. All figures are depicted to emphasise details of associated explanations.

1.4. Interaction:

This book is only a theoretical approach within the very limited facilities available to me. My intention is to present these ideas to the learnt people of science for critical evaluation. Detailed study of this concept and mathematical and experimental confirmations, wherever necessary, can be attempted at a later stage. I am aware of the fact that condensing the explanations, neglecting mathematical descriptions, and inefficient usage of language might have reduced the clarity of my presentation. The reader is requested to forgive this shortcoming and pursue the text without prejudice or bias. This book is neither edited nor peer-reviewed by experts.

Kindly beware that you will come across some statements that are or seem to be bizarre and go against well-established and widely followed norms. Do not be discouraged or tempted to give up reading. Please proceed to pursue the text, and the reasons for such statements will be made clear as you proceed in a sequential order. The most important thing while reading this book is to have an open mind. Taking any part of the text in isolation (without having followed the chain of reasoning) can cause confusion. Once a reader grasps the chain of reasoning, this concept will become very simple and logical.

The basic idea presented in this text is nothing new. When ‘Christiaan Huyghens' proposed the wave theory of light, it was assumed that light is propagated in the form of waves through an all-pervading hypothetical medium called the aether. As natural philosophy advanced, other radiations were also included with light, under the common heading of electromagnetic waves. Later, as the existence of aether could not be proven experimentally, the concept of a propagating medium faded. Nevertheless, the idea of radiation being in the form of waves is still maintained. At present, it is assumed that these waves of radiation are propagated through empty space and that no material continuity of space is needed for the transmission of electromagnetic waves. This is clearly not logical.

In this concept, it is seen that an all-pervading physical medium does exist, and it is called, in this book, by the name ‘universal medium' instead of 'aether'. Considering a real materialistic propagating medium instead of the hypothetical medium ‘aether' (although it is only a functional entity and no more a hypothetical one), the universal medium is given specific characteristic properties. By having a medium of propagation for all wave-like radiation, such phenomena become more logical. Having an all-encompassing universal medium does away with ‘actions at a distance through empty space'. All other ideas expressed here are developed from this basic idea.

Due to blind faith in some of the most fundamental theories, a few errors have crept into earlier editions of this book. They are corrected in this edition. Any other errors noticed

during further studies will be corrected later. I believe that our observations and empirical science cannot be completely free of theoretical assumptions. Hence, I humbly submit this book for your critical scrutiny. I hope and wish you would let me know your frank and honest opinion. Volunteers are welcome to undertake (independent) experiments and mathematical calculations to confirm or disprove the conclusions in this book. All criticism, suggestions for improvement, and queries are most welcome. Kindly address them to Nainan K. Varghese, Thiruvinal House, Adoor P.O., Kerala State, 691 523, India, or mailto:matterdoc@gmail.com.

In view of the feedback received after the publication of the first and second editions of 'Hypothesis on MATTER', it has become necessary to add more details to the explanations of a few phenomena. Continued study of the concept has changed certain ambiguous views expressed in earlier editions of this concept. However, the basic concept is unchanged. This edition includes a few more topics as well as expanded explanations on certain topics. Therefore, it is appropriate to publish this edition of the book and change its name from 'Hypothesis on MATTER’ to ‘MATTER (Re-examined)'. Due to the huge size of the book, it is published in two volumes.

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Josey John, M.Tech. and Anita Varghese, M.S., without whose help and encouragement this project could not reach this stage.