"Abstract: Logical development of physical theories is hindered by lack of rational mechanism of interactions between matter bodies. This has led to many illogical assumptions. The concept, currently used to facilitate interactions between matter bodies – ‘action at a distance through empty space’ – has no mechanism of action. Vague forms of fields and aether, which are also in use suffer lack of logical structure or mechanisms of action. Until these are replaced by a concept on a rational as well as real entity to facilitate as a medium between matter bodies, development of physical theories will continue to become more and more irrational. Matter is the only real entity in the universe. Hence, it is logical to expect matter to provide structured matter bodies as well as a universal medium that inter-links all matter bodies in nature. Matter itself, has to be in the form of infinite number of basic matter particles. A logical theory, based on only one type of postulated matter particle will lead to the development of an ideal universal medium. This universal medium should be able to account for all physical phenomena in nature, under the same rules and under all conditions."
"Abstract: Lack of a fundamental set of assumptions in physics encourages or often compels physicists to conceive different sets of assumptions (often unrelated) for different phenomena. When taken together, they often contradict each other. Because of numerous contemporary assumptions, physics is no longer an exact science. This affair can be remedied only by sorting existing assumptions out and tabulating one basic set of fundamental assumptions, on which explanations of every physical phenomenon should depend. If any assumption in physics is ripe for rethinking, I will suggest ‘actions at a distance through empty space’ as the first candidate.", "All real entities are made of matter. The existence of matter is the solitary phenomenon without prior cause. Therefore, the original set of assumptions should be only with respect to matter. Further development of physics, in all spheres, should be based on this original set of assumptions. To add to or modify original assumptions whenever a certain phenomenon is not readily explainable is incorrect practice. A multitude of assumptions, currently used in physics, may be substituted by a single and basic assumption that 'substance is fundamental and matter alone provides substance to all physical entities’. Although conclusions may diverge from current beliefs, reasoning based on this single fundamental assumption can logically explain all physical phenomena.", "Keywords: Assumptions, matter."
"Existence of binary star (and multi star) systems is a widely believed supposition. In binary systems, two stars (along with their accompanying macro bodies) are assumed to revolve in circular paths around their barycenter in space. In multi star systems, more than two stars are assumed to orbit around a common barycenter. Stability of their paths is attributed to gravitational attraction between them and the centrifugal actions due to their curved (circular) paths. Each system is assumed to float independently in space without external help. External influences (like gravitational attraction between neighboring bodies or impacts with external bodies) are ignored. Often their orbiting paths may differ from conventional elliptical shape to facilitate the assumption. Macro bodies (independently or in groups), floating freely in space is very illogical and contrary to physical realities."
"Abstract: Physical parameters of stable galaxies produce sufficient mutual repulsion by their halos to overcome gravitational attraction between them. However, those very large galactic clouds (or central regions of stable galaxies), which do not develop sufficient spin speeds to develop into stable galaxies, succumb to gravitational collapse and form very large single macro bodies of very high matter density. Their huge sizes and very large matter content give them certain logical properties, one of which is to reduce and prevent outward radiation (of light) from the zone of their existence. This phenomenon makes them invisible, hence the name 'Black Hole’. An alternative concept, presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’ envisages removing all mysteries about black holes and explaining logical sequences of their birth, life and death."
"Abstract: Currently, analyses of ‘Brownian motion’ are limited to its relevance to other scientific phenomena. The observed motion of a microscopic solid particle, suspended in a liquid, is attributed to the assumed random motion of liquid molecules, which is one of many assumptions of the ‘kinetic theory’. There is neither a logical cause nor a mechanism nor a known mover acting on liquid molecules. Hence, the root cause of Brownian motion remains a mystery. The aim of this article is to explain a logical mechanism for random motion of molecules of a liquid macrobody, based on structural behaviour of its 3D matter-particles, rather than to analyse observed motion and its significance to other phenomena."
"Abstract: Isaac Newton’s ‘bucket argument’ was designed to show that true rotational motion could be defined only with respect to absolute space and not with respect to surrounding macrobodies, whatever states of motion they have. Even if the whole universe (surrounding a bucket of water on Earth’s surface) rotates about it, the water's surface in the bucket will remain flat, unless the bucket itself has a true spin motion with respect to an absolute reference. Further mathematical analysis pointed towards a real action by an imaginary ‘centrifugal force’. It is not logical for imaginary efforts to cause real action. Analysing actions of 3D matter-particles of water (in a rotating bucket in a universal medium) by additional work associated with them (instead of the equilibrium of ‘forces’ on it) can give a logical explanation of actions, without using imaginary ‘centrifugal force’. All conclusions expressed in this article are from the book, ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’. For details, kindly refer to the same."
"Abstract: Currently, ‘central force’ – an apparent effort between two free macrobodies along the line joining them – is estimated in relative frames of reference. It is also assumed that action by ‘central force’ directly corresponds to its magnitude. Estimation of the magnitude and direction of ‘central force’ on planetary bodies or the central body, in a planetary system, assumes that the centre of the planetary system is static in space. Also, while considering a satellite’s orbital path, the centre of the corresponding planet is assumed to be static in space. Although such analyses help us to determine relative positions of these macrobodies, they obscure the causes and magnitudes of many other important phenomena related to planetary motion. Determining the magnitude and direction of ‘central force’ and its action with respect to absolute reference can give us logical explanations for many puzzling phenomena in planetary motions/systems."
"Abstract: Atoms are stable and self-stabilizing 3D matter-bodies, which spin about their nuclear/atomic axes. Unless in extreme conditions or due to accidents, no part of an atom may be removed from it, and under no circumstances may additional parts be included in the structure of a stable atom. Atoms of all elements (except those of inert elements) have resultant external fields about them. Complementary atoms arrange themselves to form groups until most of their resultant external fields are inhibited by the rotary motion of the atoms in planes across their atomic axes. Molecules form crystals and other groups in a similar manner for the same purpose. In order to form different combinations of atoms and/or molecules, it is necessary to break present bonds between atoms or between molecules by varying their rotary speeds to enable their resultant external fields to be effective and form different kinds of groups (molecules, crystals, etc.). These actions are generally known as chemical actions."
"Abstract: Various types of irrational inflationary models of the universe were introduced to oppose the possible accumulation of all material bodies at a point due to gravitational attraction between them. As no logical mechanism could produce an inflationary universe and maintain its stable state, diverse assumptions, including the Big Bang origin of the universe, were proposed. As no known origin to CMBR was readily available, it was accepted as proof of these assumed theories. However, CMBR has a logical reason and definite mechanisms of production. These are not linked to the Big Bang creation or an inflationary state of the universe, but to its steady-state existence."
Contemporary physical theories Vs. The concept proposed in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’.
"Abstract: Attempts to define ‘matter’ were unsuccessful throughout the development of natural philosophy. As advancements in physics called for a speedier pace, one attribute of matter – mass – was accepted as a substitute. Mass of a body (an assumed relation that exists in mathematical analyses and in the minds of analyzers) is considered as an equivalent that can represent the body’s 3D matter-content. Mass has successfully usurped the rightful place of 3D matter in all contemporary theories, thereby increasing their complexity and confusion. In the material world, the existence of matter is nearest to absolute truth. Defining matter on this basis can provide logical foundations for physical theories."
"Abstract: All actions in nature are caused, initiated, and accomplished by work. The relation between the magnitude of ‘work-done’ about a macrobody and the macrobody’s displacement during the work is the ‘force’. Hence, ‘force’ is a mathematical aspect related to work, which is a real entity. However, the term ‘force’ is usually understood as a ‘cause’ or ‘effort’ required for an action. Actions are effects of efforts due to causes. Action by an effort result in a definite effect on or about a material body. To perform an action, a certain mechanism is essential. Generally, all physical actions are understood in terms of the displacement (motion) of macrobodies in space. ‘Action at a distance through empty space’, to accomplish the movement of a macrobody, is an impossible proposition. To accomplish motion in space, four things are essential. They are: a macrobody that is being moved, an entity that is instrumental to the motion, a mechanism of motion, and a reason or cause for the motion. Although the mechanism of motion is essentially the same in all conditions, there are slight differences in its actions when the causes of motion are in different relative directions or in different planes. This article briefly describes the mechanism of motion [3] (by a universal medium that is instrumental to the motion of a macrobody), when causes in the same plane are involved."
"Abstract: Sun's corona appears much hotter than its surface. The temperature of the coronal region, which is farther from the surface by more than eight times the radius of the sun, is estimated to be over 1 million degrees Kelvin, while the temperature of the sun’s surface is only about 6000 degrees Kelvin. (The temperature at the centre of the sun is estimated at about 15 million degrees Kelvin). Earth, with an average 3D matter density of 5515 Kg/m³ and a mean radius of 6371 km, has an atmosphere that extends to about 700 km (approximately 11% of its radius). Beyond this distance, there is no perceptible concentration of 3D matter-particles. On the other hand, the Sun, with an average 3D matter density of 1408 kg/m³ and a mean radius of 696,000 km, is determined to have an atmosphere that extends to its coronal region at a distance of about eight times its mean radius (approximately 800% of its radius). It is absurd to think that the sun can sustain a concentration of 3D matter-particles at this distance, with sufficient 3D matter-density that can heat up to the estimated temperature of the coronal region. As contemporary physical theories are unable to explain any logical mechanism that can produce this difference, it is considered a ‘coronal heating problem’ in physics. Alternative concept, presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’, presents a logical mechanism that can produce the observed radiation from the coronal region (which is far beyond the limit of the Sun’s atmosphere)."
"Abstract : This article attempts to give a simple and logical explanation of the mechanism of the shift in directions of tides on planetary bodies. It is based on radically different dynamics, presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’. Linear motion of a planetary body changes the symmetry of additional structural distortions in the universal medium about it. Asymmetry of latticework-squares in planetary body’s matter-field (about direction of ‘central force’) shifts the direction of its action, which in turn shifts zenith points of tides from local meridians (facing the sun or the moon) and on opposite side. Real orbital motion of a spinning macrobody enhances deflection of tides from the local meridian. Currently, the directions of deflections of the tides from the local meridian are misinterpreted to suit the observation."
"Abstract: A free gyroscope, on or near another large macro body and asymmetrically loaded along its spinning axis (in the horizontal plane), will continue to precess about an axis passing (vertically) through its centre of mass and perpendicular to the spinning axis. The action of resultant gravitational attractions between basic 3D matter particles in both the gyroscope and the large macrobody is through a point on its spin axis away from the centre of mass. A similar effect appearing on a spinning body in a gravity-less environment and moving in a linear direction across its plane of rotation appears as the ‘Dzhanibekov Effect’."
"Abstract: Most people treat electric charges almost like physical (real) entities. Electric charges are assumed to exist in association with the fundamental particles (electrons and protons), and they could be transferred from one material body to another along with these fundamental particles. Similar electric charges are believed to repel each other, and dissimilar electric charges are believed to attract each other. These widely held assumptions in contemporary physics have neither a rational mechanism nor a logical base. This article briefly explains the nature, structure, and mechanism of interactions between electric charges as given in an alternative concept proposed in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’. Although these explanations differ from the currently accepted beliefs, they are based on consistent reasoning initiated by a single assumption about the existence of matter."
"The entire universe (and everything in it, including us) exists. Its existence is not one of many conjectural activities of the human mind. Irrespective of the presence of the human race, the universe existed, exists, and will continue to exist in a more or less similar state. Generally speaking, there are two levels of existence. The first level of existence is that which does not depend on others for its existence. The universe as a whole and its material constituents form this group. These are real entities. They are there because of their objectivity. The second level of existence is that which depends on others for its existence. These are functional entities. Functional entities are born out of real entities and their relations. They are created by the intellect of real entities for definite purposes."
"Abstract: ‘Action at a distance through empty space’ is an utterly illogical assumption, used in contemporary physics. To mitigate the irrationality of this assumption, various fields are employed in the explanations of different theories. Generally, these fields are undefined and quite vague in their structures, forms, and actions. This essay attempts to briefly describe a real entity, composed of matter in definite structural formations and with a logical mechanism of action, which can substitute for various types of undefined fields."
"Abstract : Flattening of Earth’s Polar Regions and bulging of its equatorial region are usually attributed to ‘centrifugal force’ due to Earth’s spin motion. ‘Centrifugal force’ is fictitious, yet it is assumed to physically affect Earth’s shape. Earth’s spin motion is apparent only with respect to its own north-south central (spin) axis. With respect to absolute space, every point on earth continuously moves in the same (mean) direction as the direction of the sun’s linear motion, at slightly different linear speeds. Very small centrifugal action (due to the differences in the linear speeds of its constituent 3D matter-particles) on Earth is not sufficient to produce the observed magnitude of equatorial bulge and flattening of its polar regions. This article describes an alternative mechanism that causes the observed physical deformation of the Earth."
"Abstract: ‘Flyby anomaly’ is a significant but unaccounted apparent increase or reduction in linear velocity of a spacecraft during Earth flybys. This phenomenon could not be explained by current physical laws. This article attempts to show that the noticed discrepancies are apparent and they are produced by faulty geometry used in contemporary laws of planetary motion. In reality, the spacecraft and external efforts on it behave normally. There are no causes or actions that vary the spacecraft’s linear velocity during Earth flybys. There is no basis for the assumption of strange ‘forces’ or mysterious effects on or about the spacecraft."
Abstract : Opposition to relative movements between macrobodies in contact is generally termed as ‘ friction’. Friction develops from the mutual adhesive tendencies of resultant distortion-fields of adjacent atoms on the contact surfaces of macrobodies in contact. All atoms have resultant distortion-fields surrounding their material structures. The tendency of adhesion between interlinking resultant distortion-fields of neighbouring atoms on either side of the contact surface is caused by the merger of these distortion-fields into a common stable structure. An attempt to destabilize the resultant structure of merged distortion-fields between the material bodies in contact results in a resistance to their relative motion.
"Abstract: Free 3D matter-particles and other debris, present in a region of space, may gather under gravitational attraction to form a galactic cloud. The development of a galactic cloud depends on its total 3D matter-content and spin speed. A galactic cloud (or the region within a galactic cloud) with low or no spin motion condenses to form a black hole under gravitational collapse. Outer regions of a galactic cloud, with higher spin speed, condense to form a stable galaxy. A galaxy may remain stable only for a short while. As the spin speed of the galaxy increases, its 3D matter-content gradually disperses or reverts into the universal medium."
"Abstract: Discovery of gravitational attraction necessitated a cause for the even distribution of macrobodies throughout the universe. Assumed mutual attraction due to gravitation defies their even distribution unless it is counteracted by a repulsion between them, at least in the case of large-scale groups of macrobodies. None of the current concepts supplies a rational theory. An alternative concept, presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’, proposes a logical explanation that describes how neighbouring stable galaxies overcome gravitational attraction between them to settle at a stable distance from each other for the major part of their life. Halo at the outer periphery of a spinning galaxy is formed by independent primary 3D matter-particles. Their primary electric fields are mechanically oriented to create sufficient electromagnetic repulsion between neighbouring galaxies. This is a natural process originating in the universal medium, which encompasses the entire universe. Since stable galaxies are able to maintain their relative positions in space, the universe (as a whole) is able to have a perpetual steady state of existence, except for local recycling of matter."
"Abstract: Orbital speeds of stars, far from the centre of a galaxy, are found to be roughly constant, instead of reductions predicted by current gravitational theories (applied on galactic and cosmological scales). This phenomenon is known as the anomalous rotation of galaxies. This article aims to demonstrate that the constant angular speeds of all macrobodies in a galaxy are a natural phenomenon, and there is no mystery about it."
"Abstract: Gravitation and gravity (gravitational attraction) are different phenomena. Gravitation is the compressive pressure on 3D matter by an (aether-like) universal medium that is structured by quanta of matter and fills the entire universe outside basic 3D matter-particles. Gravitational attraction is an apparent attraction resulting from separate gravitational (push) actions on two basic 3D matter-particles, towards each other."
"Abstract : Presently, ‘heat’ is understood as a type of energy and ‘heating’ as a process of transfer of energy. Energy, being the ability to do work, is a quality and hence a functional entity. Functional entities have neither objective reality nor positive existence in space. Therefore, energy has neither form nor structure, nor real existence. However, in contemporary physics, energy (an imaginary entity) is treated almost like a real entity with form, structure, and objective reality, with the ability to transfer and change forms. It is currently used as the cause of actions, where no other cause is obvious.", "According to an alternative concept, presented in the book, ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’, energy is a functional entity that develops wherever and whenever work is done in association with a three-dimensional material body. Heating is a process of reducing the three-dimensional matter-content level of a macrobody. In any body, its 3D matter-content and work associated with its integrity and state (of motion) are complementary and support each other. 3D matter-content of a body is the quantity of 3D matter it contains in the form of basic 3D matter-particles. Energy-content about a body is the stress developed, due to structural distortions (work done), in the universal medium in and about the body."
"Abstract: The weight of a macrobody is its acceleration due to gravity, in gravitational units, towards another larger macrobody. During variations in its temperature, a macrobody changes the quantity of its 3D matter (mass). Since mass is a factor in the equations that determine gravitational attraction and acceleration, a macrobody’s acceleration due to gravity does not change with variation in its mass. An alternative concept, presented in the book ‘Matter (Re-examined)’, considers the mass as a mathematical relation representing the equivalent of the 3D matter it contains and the 3D matter content of the body as the quantity of 3D matter it contains. It advocates a mechanism that induces additional changes in the magnitude of gravitational attraction beyond those caused by variations in the macrobody’s mass. Thus, it is logical to find that a macrobody weighs less when hot than in a cooler state."
"Abstract: In the material world, matter provides substance to all real entities. Hence, it is logical to conceive a development hierarchy of various matter-particles, starting from unstructured matter, rather than bifurating superior matter-particles into inferior ones on the basis of noticed properties. Diverse properties of various matter-particles are derived from immediate inferior matter-particles and depend on their physical structures. A very brief account of the development of various matter-particles, from unstructured matter, as conceived in the alternative concept presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’, is enumerated in this article."
"Abstract: Matter is the only substance that can provide objective reality and positive existence in space. A (real) universal medium should be made of matter. It should be homogeneous and fill the entire space, outside 3D matter-particles, without any voids (empty space). At the same time, it should be flexible enough to have the properties of a perfect fluid. The anisotropic nature, which allows relative motions within, requires that the universal medium be structured by sub-particles, and each of its constituent matter-particles has a lot of (apparently) vacant space around it, allowing for relative movements. This article attempts to describe how these contradicting properties are simultaneously achieved in the universal medium, proposed in an alternative concept, presented in the book, ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’."
"Abstract: No actions can be performed at a distance through empty space. An all-encompassing medium is essential to facilitate (apparent) physical actions between material bodies at a distance. Aether, used in aether-theories and other imaginary entities currently used to explain various physical phenomena, is too vague and fails to describe many physical actions of material bodies logically. By realising an entity that fills the entire space as an all-encompassing universal medium, the formless space can be replaced with a structured real entity. An ideal universal medium is a real entity with positive existence in space that has all properties currently assigned to space and other imaginary entities, like different types of aether, imaginary particles, various types of fields, etc."
"Abstract: Inertia is a property that causes macro bodies to respond sluggishly to external efforts. Since no other entity that can prevent instantaneous action by external efforts on a free macrobody or maintain a macrobody’s constant state of motion is known, the phenomenon of inertia is usually attributed to matter itself, in a negative sense. 3D matter is inert; it has no ability to move, act, or oppose external efforts. The property of inertia rightly belongs to the universal medium, whose action moves 3D material bodies. The property of inertia is due to the stabilisation process of the latticework structures in the universal medium. Only when the mechanism of action of external effort on an object and the mechanism of motion of 3D material bodies, as envisaged in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’, are understood, will the nature of inertia be clear."
"Abstract: Light is a flow of three-dimensional material-corpuscles, each corpuscle accompanied by a separate set of structural distortions in the universal medium. Together, they constitute radiation of photons. For existence, it is essential for the 3D matter-core of a photon to move at the highest possible linear speed, at which the universal medium can move it. This limit endows light with the constancy of its linear speed. Constancy of linear speed is related to and hence depends on the nature of the universal medium in the region of space, where light is radiated. This essay briefly describes the mechanism of light’s motion and the stabilizing mechanism of its linear speed, as envisaged in an alternative concept presented in the book, ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’. For details, kindly refer to the same [1]."
"Abstract: An all-encompassing universal medium, made of ‘real’ matter particles, fills the entire space outside ‘basic 3D matter-particles’. It is homogeneous, isotropic, and self-stabilizing multiple-entity. Because of its inherent compression, it squeezes all ‘basic 3D matter-particles’ by direct contact. This all-around push action on basic 3D matter-particles by the universal medium is ‘gravitation’. The strength of gravitation is proportional to the extent of the universal medium, away from the point of action. The extent of universal medium on the outer-sides of two basic 3D matter-particles is always more (with correspondingly higher gravitation) than the extent of universal medium in between them (with correspondingly lower gravitation). Greater pushes from outer-sides and lower pushes from in between, compel the basic 3D matter-particles to move towards each other. The cause of this motion appears as an ‘attraction’ between the basic 3D matter-particles. This phenomenon is interpreted as ‘gravitational attraction’ between them. ‘Gravitational attraction’ is a minor by-product of separate gravitational push-actions on each of the basic 3D matter-particles. The magnitude of gravitational attraction between two macrobodies is the resultant of gravitational attractions between their constituent basic 3D matter-particles. It is the differences in extents of universal medium on either side of constituent basic 3D matter-particles that produce gravitational attraction between two macrobodies, rather than shadow-effects on each other."
"Abstract: Although the mass of an object is defined to represent the equivalent of 3D matter it contains, it is often considered as the quantity of 3D matter contained in the object. Mass is the mathematical relation between an external linear effort on an object and the rate of the rate of its displacement in the direction of the external effort. This relationship is often ignored, and the value of a body's mass is regarded in almost all academic fields as the quantity of 3D matter present in the object. Loss (or gain) of mass of an object during its development stage or changes in its structure is understood as ‘mass defect’. This is often related to an assumed phenomenon of binding energy required to stabilize the nucleons in the atoms in a body."
"Abstract: Matter is the only substance that can provide objective existence in space and physical reality to an entity. All real entities are made of matter. Due to a lack of a reference, we have no measuring scale to determine the matter-contents of real objects. Instead, one attribute of matter, the mass, represents the equivalent of the matter-contents of material objects. Mass, used for all purposes, is itself often bifurcated into inertial mass, gravitational mass, etc. Inertial mass is a measure of inertia, a property attributed to 3D material bodies. Gravitational mass is derived from the magnitude of gravitational attraction experienced by a macrobody. However, the importance accorded to mass (in place of matter-content of an object) caused the matter to be regarded an unnecessary entity, even for the existence of material bodies, and encouraged the development of exotic theories and mysterious particles. Devising a logical measurement scale can help restore glory to matter, rightly due to it, as the only substance that can provide existence to all real objects."
"Abstract: Most physical actions in three-dimensional world are recognized by displacements of 3D material bodies in space. In these cases, mechanisms of action and motion are synonymous. As 3D matter is inert, all actions and apparent interactions (attributed to 3D material bodies) are mediated by an all-encompassing universal medium that fills the entire space, outside basic 3D matter-particles. Action of effort invests additional work in the universal medium within and surrounding a macrobody. Additional work, in the universal medium, moves at a linear speed corresponding to the external effort. As they move, all enclosed basic 3D matter-particles (of the macrobody) are carried along. Additional work, associated with a macrobody, determines its state of motion."
"Abstract: Celestial bodies like the moon, sun, etc. appear considerably larger near the horizon than they do higher in the sky or at the zenith. Between horizon and zenith, gradual reductions in their sizes are apparent. This is contradictory to our general experience that the farther an object is, the smaller it appears. Apparent variation in the size of a celestial body from the horizon to the zenith and back to the horizon is usually called the 'moon illusion' or 'sun illusion'. This category also includes the apparent enlargement of all celestial bodies and the distances between them when viewed at the horizon. In the following paragraphs this phenomenon is represented as the ‘moon illusion’."
"Abstract: All natural (inertial) motions are in straight lines. Rotating motion or motion in a circular path is the result of simultaneous straight-line motions of 3D matter-particles of a macrobody, in different directions at different linear speeds, appropriate to their locations in the macrobody. A macrobody, moving in a circular path, is under a constant inward effort. It simultaneously has two linear motions: one linear (centripetal) motion due to centripetal effort towards the centre of the circular path and another linear motion due to its momentum in a direction deflected outward from the tangent to the circular path. The outward component of linear motion gives rise to the assumption of an imaginary ‘centrifugal force’. Centripetal motion not only compensates for the outward component of linear motion but also deflects the direction of linear motion inward. Explanations on rotary motion with respect to an absolute (inertial) reference frame can give real parameters without the use of imaginary entities. Work invested by an external effort in and about a macrobody continues to act even after cessation of the external effort, until it is stabilised and the macrobody’s motion attains steady state. The phenomenon of inertial delay operates not only during the application of an external effort but also during its cessation. Ignoring this fact caused the assumption that the direction of instantaneous linear motion of a macrobody, moving in a circular path, is tangential to its path. In the following explanation, the motion of a macrobody in a circular path is described in accordance with an alternative concept presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’. For details, kindly refer to the same [1]."
"Abstract: Two equal volumes of water, one slightly warmer than the other, when placed in similar external conditions to freeze, the warmer water is noticed to freeze before the other. This phenomenon (called the Mpemba effect) is the result of a difference in the rates of interatomic movements during the cooling stages of macrobodies with different initial temperatures."
"Abstract: Light is sensed by rational beings. Only real entities can produce sensory perception. Matter alone provides the substance needed for objective reality in space. Hence, light or its components are essentially made of matter. Universal medium (formed by matter), under suitable conditions, creates components of light from itself. For existence, it is essential for light’s components to move at the highest possible linear speed, at which the universal medium can move them and spin at a frequency proportional to their 3D matter-contents. The flow of these components constitutes radiation of light or similar radiation. This essay very briefly describes the mechanism of creation and development of light’s components, as envisaged in an alternative concept presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’. For details, kindly refer to the same [1]."
"Abstract: Time is a functional entity, derived from the fundamental property of basic 3D matter-particles (photons) to move at a constant linear speed. 3D matter has no ability to act or move. It is the all-encompassing the universal medium around the 3D matter-particle, which moves them at the highest possible speed. A unit of time is related to the interval required by a photon to traverse a definite extent of the universal medium in space. Relating other activities about 3D material bodies, to time helps us to rationalise in terms of cause-and-effect relations. Due to its lack of physical form, time can neither expand nor contract nor flow in any direction."
"Abstract: Towards the end of its stable life, a ‘black hole’ becomes a quasar and pulsar. Activities of a quasar or pulsar are managed by cyclic outward and inward radial motion of the universal medium from or towards its central region. Relative motion of the universal medium acts as an inertial effort on 3D matter-particles. As and when the outer envelope (mantle) of a pulsar is unable to withstand the outward effort due to an increase in its internal pressure and due to outward displacement of the universal medium, the pulsar explodes as a supernova. Intense external pressure on 3D matter-particles causes 3D matter-cores of their photons to merge and form very high-frequency photons."
"Abstract: Wobbling, caused by slow continuous change in the orientation of the Earth’s apparent rotational axis, is called ‘precession of the equinoxes’. The rotation of the Earth is an apparent motion only with respect to its central axis. Deflection of Earth’s apparent rotational axis is caused by a shift in its centre of gravity from its geometrical centre due to non-uniform distribution of its 3D matter-content rather than by precession due to its apparent spin motion. Deflections of Earth’s apparent spin axis, caused by the northward shift of its centre of gravity, during Earth’s orbital path on either side of the Sun’s mean path are in opposite directions, and hence the resultant magnitude of deflection depends on the eccentricity of Earth’s apparent elliptical orbit around the Sun."
"Abstract: Mathematical deductions are nothing but exercises of human mind. Mathematical equations or laws have no mind of their own. Human minds manipulate information from various ‘cause and effect’ relations to form and interpret various mathematical laws and derive suitable equations. Therefore, it is the human minds that give rise to aims and intentions rather than mindless mathematics. Without human intelligence to formulate them from cause-and-effect relations, mathematical laws and equations remain mere sequential arrangements of notations."
"Abstract: Observed locations of Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecrafts, after they left the solar system, are displaced from their predicted positions in space, and the discrepancy, which could not be explained by current physical laws, is termed the ‘Pioneer anomaly’. This article attempts to show that the noticed discrepancy is an apparent phenomenon, produced by faulty geometry used in the contemporary laws of planetary motion. In reality, the spacecrafts and external efforts on them behave normally. There is no cause for the assumption of strange ‘forces’ or mysterious effects on these spacecrafts."
"Abstract: It is generally believed that planetary magnetism is the result of the motion of molten iron alloys in a planetary body’s core region. An assumed dynamo mechanism, in the core region of a planetary body, generates a magnetic field by a feedback loop: electric current loops in the region create a magnetic field, and the magnetic loops in turn create the electric fields. This assumption uses circular logic. As the linear speed of a spinning planetary body is much greater than the (tangential) linear motion of its constituent 3D matter-particles due to the planetary body’s spin speed, every 3D matter-particle in the spinning planetary body always moves in the same direction in space. The spin motion of a planetary body is an illusion, and it is valid only for considerations with respect to a static reference of the planetary body’s spin axis. The real motion of all 3D matter-particles of a spinning planetary body (with respect to absolute reference) is always in the same linear direction; the swirling motion of a planetary body’s interior is a myth. To consider this imaginary swirling motion of a planetary body’s magma as the cause of planetary magnetism is not tenable. Even for the dynamo effect to occur, a primary source of magnetism is required, which is absent in this case. The cause and nature of planetary magnetism, described in this article, are based on a radically different concept, presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’. For details, kindly refer to the same [1]."
"Abstract: It is an established fact that the Sun is a moving macrobody in space. By simple mechanics, it is physically impossible for a free planetary body to orbit around a moving central body in any type of geometrically closed path. Both a circle and an ellipse are closed geometrical figures. Hence, elliptical planetary orbital paths (closed geometrical figures) around the Sun are false or apparent. A planetary body moves in the same direction as its central body. It is only when we imagine reversing the direction of a planetary body’s motion on one side of the central body’s path that we can get a geometrically closed figure for the planet’s apparent orbital path. Use of a reference frame, related to a static central body, causes planetary orbital paths to appear as closed geometrical figures around central body. Because the central body is moving, this does not reflect physical reality. Although they help to explain apparent phenomena, all properties attributed to elliptical/circular planetary orbital paths are unreal. Real physical actions are restricted to real entities, and they have to be understood with an absolute reference. Since the elliptical shape of a planetary orbit is imaginary, it has limitations in explaining real actions in nature. The mechanism of orbit formation and limitations of orbiting macrobodies, described in this article, are based on radically different dynamics from an alternative concept presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’."
"Abstract: A part of the action by ‘central force’ between planetary and central bodies causes their spin motions. All macrobodies in planetary systems develop a mean accelerating spin motion. Depending on their orbital parameters, planets and central bodies may spin forward, rearward, or, in rare cases, may not spin at all. All macrobodies in a planetary system tend to spin in a common orbital plane. Angular accelerations of orbiting macrobodies continue indefinitely until the centrifugal actions disintegrate the planets and the planetary system. In an orbiting macrobody, consistency of its 3D matter-content and radial size determines relative spin speeds at different parts. Equatorial regions of all very large orbiting macrobodies spin faster than their polar regions or regions towards their spin axes. Lengthening of (terrestrial) solar days, presently misinterpreted as slowing down of Earth’s spin motion, is the result of insufficient compensation for Earth’s apparent spin motion about the Sun."
"Abstract: An evolving galactic cloud, depending on its parameters, may attain a stable state for a brief period. Total 3D matter-content, spin speed, and diameter of the spinning galactic cloud determine the duration of the stable period. This article proposes a mutual relation between these factors required for a galactic cloud during its life as a stable galaxy."
"Abstract: Although the mass of an object is defined to represent the equivalent of 3D matter it contains, it is often considered as the quantity of 3D matter contained in the object. Mass is the mathematical relation between an external linear effort on an object and the rate of the rate of its displacement (acceleration) in the direction of the external effort. This relationship is often ignored, and the value of mass is regarded in almost all academic fields as the quantity of 3D matter present in the object. The dependency of the measure of mass of an object on its linear speed introduces certain changes in the value of its mass, depending on the initial speed of the object, which is considered in this article."
"Abstract: Contemporary physics has many unsolved problems. Most of them are due to inadequacy of theories or illogical application of one theory to seemingly similar problem elsewhere. An alternative concept, presented in book 'MATTER (Re-examined)' proposes to provide logical explanations to all these apparent problems. In this article, author proposes to present short notes and pointers to detailed explanations in the book. All explanations are based on a single assumption that 'Substance is fundamental and matter alone provides substance to all real entities'. There are neither imaginary particles nor mysterious actions nor actions at a distance through empty space in this concept. Cause and effect relations are followed in all topics."
"Abstract: 'It from bit' doctrine suggested that laws of physics can be presented in terms of information, and hence, information is more fundamental to physics than reality. Reality is about existence, and information is about existing objects. An object has to exist before information can be gained about it. Hence, reality is more fundamental than information. ‘It from bit’ doctrine is not much different from many other modern theories in physics, which consider human faculty above reality. All of them strive to impose human supremacy over nature."
"Abstract: In any system of macrobodies, relative considerations can provide only parameters of their relative positions. Use of a reference frame related to a static central macrobody causes the planetary orbital path to appear as a closed geometric figure around the central macrobody. As the central macrobody is a moving macrobody, this does not reflect physical reality. Although this helps to explain cyclic phenomena, properties attributed to elliptical/circular planetary orbital paths are unreal. Due to constant linear motions of free macrobodies in space, it is practically impossible for a free macrobody to orbit around another in any type of closed geometrical path. However, they may orbit about each other and follow a common median path in space. The real orbital path of a planetary body is wavy about the median path of the central body, with the planetary body moving to the front and rear of the central body, cyclically."
"Abstract: Reversals of Earth’s direction of motion in its orbital path around the Sun are an essential requirement for contemporary explanations of stellar aberration. Earth’s orbital path around the Sun is an apparent concept. Reversal of direction of motion of a macro body of the size of the Earth and moving at the real linear speed of the Earth, in a three-month period, without affecting its integrity, is irrational. However, considering corpuscles of light as 3D matter-particles can provide a logical explanation for this phenomenon."
"Abstract: By simple mechanics, it is impossible for a free macrobody to orbit around another moving macrobody in any type of closed geometrical path. However, while considering the two-body problems, relative parameters of macrobodies are considered with one of them steady in space. This simple method of mathematical analysis can give accurate predictions of their future relative parameters. The orbital path of a planetary body appears around its static central body. Circular/elliptical orbits around a static central body, being an imaginary figure, have no value other than to indicate the relative positions of concerned macrobodies. All macrobodies, in nature, are moving. In cases of moving central bodies (real situations) or when there are more than two macrobodies in a system, relative considerations cannot describe their orbital paths. Due to the phenomenal success of the solution to the two-body problem by relative considerations, a firm but erroneous belief has been established that all planetary bodies move around their central bodies. The adamant belief in an imaginary circular/elliptical orbital path is carried forward to a three-body system to create an imaginary but unsolvable problem. The three-body problem (as considered today with respect to planetary motions) is unsolvable because real and imaginary situations are mixed in it. It is nothing but a deception from reality, adopted to create a baseless mystery."
"Abstract: This article attempts to give a simple and logical explanation of the tidal mechanism, based on a radically different dynamics, presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’ [1]. Tides are caused by (accelerating) actions of external efforts on a linearly moving spinning macrobody. Each external effort alters the shape of the spinning macrobody separately to produce its own set of tides. The change in shape of a spinning macrobody, rather than the displacement of its parts, causes tides. Displacement of ocean water in the direction of the moving tide is superficial, and it cannot produce tidal drag on Earth’s solid core."
"Abstract: ‘Action at a distance through empty space’ is an illogical assumption. An all-encompassing medium is essential to facilitate physical actions. Aether, used in aether theories, is too vague and fails to logically describe many physical actions involving 3D material bodies. An alternative concept presented in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’ envisages an all-encompassing medium that has real constituent matter-particles, structure, properties, and actions. For details, kindly refer to the same [1]."
"Abstract: Due to the structure of three-dimensional matter-particles and apparent interaction between them, free macrobodies have a natural tendency to gradually reshape themselves to perfect spheres in 3D space. Sub-structured macrobodies tend to increase their existence into the largest number of spatial dimensions. Contrary to this tendency of the macrobodies, pure (unstructured) matter-particles tend to reduce their existence to the minimum number of spatial dimensions. This contradictory behaviour of matter (in its pure state and in sub-structured state) can be shown as the basis of all physical phenomena in nature, including creation, sustenance, (apparent) interactions, and eventual destruction of macrobodies."
"Abstract : Only an entity that provides substance to all real entities can be the most fundamental. All others are derived from it. In the material world, the existence of matter is absolute truth. Therefore, matter qualifies as the most fundamental, and it provides substance to all real entities."
"Abstract : Energy, an undefined entity derived from work, is generally equated to motion. This has necessitated the introduction of certain motions of physical bodies, wherever energy is envisaged. All actions are results of work done rather than energy. Although energy has no definite form, structure or existence, it has gradually come to usurp the rightful status of work about a physical body. The author proposes an alternative concept that may restore work, motion and energy to their fair and logical status."
